Despite these initial frustrations, the U.S. submarines missed many perfectly aligned targets due to deep-running or dud torpedoes. Unfortunately, grave defects in the depth controls and exploder of the untried Mark XIV torpedoes, already observed in Philippine waters in 1941/42, were not properly addressed until later in the war. During 1942, air- and surface-search radars were installed, expanding the submarines’ capabilities and survivability. They were armed with deck guns, machine guns, and up to 28 torpedoes. The fleet boats, used predominantly after 1942, were robustly constructed, had a 10,000-mile cruising range, and carried supplies for 60 days. In mid-1942, available units still ranged from the older and smaller “ S-boat” types (distinguished by hull number) to the much larger fleet-type submarines of the Salmon and Gato classes. Navy submarines were primarily based at Brisbane and Fremantle, Australia (for operations in the south and southwest Pacific), and Pearl Harbor, Hawaii (north and central Pacific). Following the loss of their base at Cavite, Philippines, in December 1941, U.S.
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